Shared definitions by learned scholars refer to organisational culture - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 14 Words: 4225 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Marketing Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? 2.1 CORPORATE CULTURE (Shein 1996), defined culture as: ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦. a pattern of basic assumptions that a group has invented, discovered or developed in learning to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, and that have worked well enough to be considered valid, and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. This he said is evident in the approach that members of the organizations use to perform their given tasks and the manner that key decisions about important issues of the organization are executed. The manner this is done, buttresses the organisations policy, strategy and procedures. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Shared definitions by learned scholars refer to organisational culture" essay for you Create order Other shared definitions by learned scholars refer to organisational culture as pattern of shared values and beliefs that help individuals understand organizational functioning and thus provide them with the norms for behavior in the organization(Deshpande and Webster 1989), a set of cognitions shared by members of a social unit (OReilly et al., 1991). According to (Laurie 2008), organisational culture is a combination of traditions, values, policies, beliefs, and attitude that establishes a general framework for everything done in an organisation. It can also refer to the form of beliefs, values, and ways of managing experience that have developed during the course of the organizations history, and becomes noticeable in its material arrangements and the behavior of its members. (Brown 1998). (Gupta 2009), in his write up, stated that organisational culture is a set of unwritten rules meant to guide the employees towards an standardardised and rewarding behaviour. Despite the d iffering definitions of corporate culture by many researchers and authors, some of them have collectively agreed that corporate culture entails combining the pattern of behavior, beliefs, procedures and values that make up the organizations identity; and also to assist in the structuring of the users behavior. It is very significant to view how people perform within the context of the group, sharing with a group of people in an organization is the main definition of corporate culture that most authors agreed on. (Deshpande and Farley, 1999). Many studies demonstrate that organizational culture is one of the most important factors with a significant role in determining how an organization performs (Chatman and John, 1994, Hofstede et al, 1990, Schein, 1990, Denison, 1990, Gillespie et al, 2007). According to Lewis (2002) organizational culture has been confirmed to be a lasting theory in the prediction of the organizations performance. In addition, many researchers such as (Den ison, 1990; Ambro`, 2004; Ouchi, 1981; Kwantes and Boglarsky, 2007; Berry and Parasuraman, 1992; Stein and Bowen, 2003) have confirmed the relationship between organisational culture and effectiveness. Some other authors have investigated culture from a strategic point of view and have presented culture as a basis of competitive advantage (Wilkins and Ouchi, 1983; ONeill et al, 2001; Hasmi and Asaari, 2007). Choe (1993) establish a strong relationship between corporate strategy and culture. He found that firms that practice the business strategy tends to have a culture that develops over time and those that apply defensive strategy tend to have hierarchical culture. According to (Deshpandà © 1999), investigations into market orientation suggest that the existence of an innovative and entrepreneurial culture is strongly associated with exceptional business performance. Collectively, these reports suggest that an organizational culture that puts more importance on customer-oriented b ehaviours, cross-functional teams, performance-based rewards, adjustment and reactive attitudes to change, and a higher degree of risk taking and improvement, is likely to contribute to have successful customer relations management system implementations. Detert (2000) was responsible for alerting other organisational researchers on the importance of the relationship between organisational culture and quality of services. His research shows that there is a close relationship between a quality service system and organisational culture. Starkey and Woodcock (2002) reiterated the importance of a customer oriented service system. They stressed that organizations that are less customer oriented are more likely to perform poorly in terms of sales output as against those that are customer oriented. To survive in the highly competitive retail service markets, organisations need to provide products and services that will produce highly satisfied and loyal customers (Westbrook and Oliver, 1991). According to (Asif and Sargeant, 2000), several benefits accrue to the organisation via customer loyalty such as generation of profit, costs related to promotions, advertising and start-up costs are limited. More so, chances of increase in customers will be high, as satisfied customers will recommend the organisations products and services to others. As a result, customer satisfaction can be the key factor to the growth of the business, in term of market share and profit. Service organizations were investigated by Gilbert and Parhizgari (2000) who established that different service organization cultures are successful in different contexts. Researches into the relationship between organizational culture and performance in organizations have confirmed that their culture characteristically and uniquely affected their performance Ambro (2004). Trice and Beyer (1993: 174) warn that though organizations may have unique cultures, they should not be considered to have a single, h omogeneous culture. Curry and Kkolou (2004) identify customer focus, participation, and teamwork as important cultural issues influencing customer relations outcomes. They suggested that empowering employees to excel at customer service and ensuring their job security also contribute to customer relation success. Uniformality of Organizational Culture Though organizational culture is basically termed to be the existence of shared value system and beliefs, this does not however imply that there is no sub-culture within an organization (Jermier et al., 1991). In arguing their case, researchers commented that most organisations have multiple cultures ingrained within the basic corporate culture, and these are known as sub-cultures (Ouchi, 1980; Ashforth and Mael, 1989). According to (Bellou, 2007) sub-groups in organizations can generate sub-cultures that build specific networks of meaning and meanwhile still remain associated with the ideologies and values of the organizations leadership. However, the inherent culture mutual to the generality of the organization is known as the dominant culture. In fact, when talking about the organizational culture absolutely the dominant culture is meant. Originally, it was assumed for a long period that the organizational culture is static (Schein, 1983). However, according to (Barely, 1983) many other researchers have challenged this assumption, claiming that the organizational culture is dynamic and is evolving to suit the organization growth stage. Researching the dynamic nature of organizational culture, Zheng, Yang, and McLean (2010) argued that as the organization develops through different growth stages i.e. start-up, growth, maturity, and revival, so also does the dominant organizational culture follows many stages i.e. inspiration, implantation, negotiation, and transformation. On the relationship between the perceptions of the function of the organizational culture of the employees and the customers of the particular organization, Parasuraman et al. (1985) proposed that employees can correctly forecast customer perceptions of many determinants of service quality and are mainly accurate in service quality areas such as courtesy and responsiveness. Concerning customer attitudes about service quality, Schneider, Parkington Buxton (1980) and Schneider and Bowen (1985) remarked that customer attitudes regarding service quality were significantly correlated how employees view the issue of customer service. Furthermore, Conduit and Mavondo (2001) found that the combined effects of customer orientation and market orientation have a considerably strong infuence on an organizations performance. Subramony, Beehr and Johnson (2004) confirmed positive links between employee and customer perceptions on service effectiveness, group maturity, and service quality. Ho wever, other studies do not support their conclusions. A study by Shahani-Denning (2000) disagreed by revealing that customers and employees often perceive organizational effectiveness from different perspectives. Identification of the Organizational Culture For the rationale of identifying the organizational culture system, Allaire and Firsirotu (1984) suggested that three interconnected sets of systems can assist in identifying organizational culture. Following Scheins (1990) write-up on culture, the first is the socio-cultural system, which covers organizational structures, strategies, policies, and other associated management practices. According to (Mackenzie, 1986; Thompson, 1967), this sub-system of organizational culture follows the classic theory of management that centers on attaining set organizational goals through task-oriented management. Conventionally, leaders have the prevailing role in deciding how tasks apportionment is structures within the organization. Towards this end, leaders tend to manage the core technology of the organization through clarifying the goals of the organisation, structuring the procedures that would lead to achievement of these goals, and develop strategies that convert these goals into outcomes ( Bossert et al. 1982; Mackenzie 1986). However, scholars have suggested that the development of the cultural aspects of any organization is a powerful function of the top management, meaning that it is the duty of leaders in the organization to set the organizational goals and purposes and channel their decisions effectively to all those involved (Heck, Larsen, Marcoulides, 1990; Reynolds, 1986). In developing the organizational culture, Bolman and Deal (1984) and Owens (1987) emphasized that it is the role of leaders of organizations to teach organizational values and promote organizational missions. Strong versus Weak Culture (Sorensen, 2002; Rosenthal Masarech, 2003) have argued that there is a clear demarcation between strong and weak organizational culture and the way they influence organizational performance and employees behaviors. Furthermore, it has been extensively debated by academics and practitioners that a strong culture, the measure of belief and acceptance of shared culture, is the overriding determinant of the performance of any organisation (Deal Kennedy, 1982; Peters Waterman, 1982). The strength or weakness of a culture according to (Peters Waterman, 1982) is determined by firstly, the economic value it adds to the organization in order to create competitive advantage for the organization. Secondly by the uniqueness and how valuable the organizational culture is as this will help the organization to behave differently from their rivals. Finally, the structure organizational culture of an organization must not be easy to imitate and not be transferable in order to create competitive advantage for the organization. There is a general argument that strong cultures have a greater impact on employee behavior and are more directly linked to reduction in staff turnover, the organizations core values are both intensely held and widely shared and that a lofty conformity concerning what the organization stands for, builds cohesiveness, loyalty, and organizational commitment. Based on these there have been numerous efforts by scholars to give details of the performance supremacy of some very big organizations based on their organizational cultures (Deal Kennedy, 1982; Peters Waterman, 1982). However, based on their findings, they concluded that the better performance of these companies can be attributed basically to their core value sets such as human resource management practices, customers and suppliers relationships established and maintained by their leaders. These management practices promote innovativeness of these organizations, improved the employees self-esteem and quality of work life and consequently led to competitive advantage (Peters Waterman, 1982). Notwithstanding the fact that profit is the main goal of most organization, most research efforts are spent on customer satisfaction and experiences gained within a service organization (Anderson et al., 1997). Bowen et al (2000) and Gupta et al (2005) studied organisational culture and custo mer satisfaction and established the strong link between these two factors that have great influence on the conditions of organizational effectiveness. Organizational Culture Theories Daniel R. Denison, who is a Professor at IMD in Lausanne, Switzerland has done many researches on cultural impact on organizational effectiveness. He established that there are four basic cultural traits that can have impact on positive performance and these which are adaptability, involvement, mission and consistency. The effectiveness and culture model for (Denison 1990) as this is known, represents the relationship between management, corporate culture, effectiveness and finally the performance of the organization. This model is structured to lay emphasis on the significance of association in management practices with the beliefs and principles when investigating the effectiveness and culture of the organization in relation to its performance. The Adaptability Theory According to (Denison, 1990), the adaptation theory lays emphasis on an organizations ability to accept, interpret and translate interference from the external environment into internal norms that could be the organizations goals that lead to survival or success. The three key aspects of adaptability; perception and response to the external environment, the ability to respond to internal customers and prompt reaction to either internal and external customer, are likely to have an strong effect on an organizations effectiveness (Denison, 1989), and requires the capacity to reorganize and a laid down set of behaviours and processes that allow for organizational adaptation. The Involvement Theory This theory whose feature includes constructing the individual ability, responsibility, duty and ownership proposes that a high level of involvement and participation increases a sense of ownership and responsibility (Denison, 1989). Here, employees are meant to be involved in decision making and have a reasonable degree of autonomy, and this could lead to higher performance. The Mission Theory The mission of the organization provides rationale and meaning by defining a social responsibility. Provided the organizations purpose is understood and used to guide the behaviour, discussions and decisions of the members,it leads to greater commitment and effective performance (Denison, 1989). A second major influence that mission affected on organization performance is the direction and clarity. It is the long term development for the corporation. Evidently, mission gives a clear trend and objectives for the members and organization that is provided to identify the appropriate course of action. Success according to Denison (1995) is more likely when it is goal directed. The definition of common goal shall coordinate well with the structured a positive organizational behaviour. The Consistency Theory Positive culture such as a shared beliefs, values and symbols among the organizations members will allow them to coordinate their actions, but this must be done continually. The basic concept of this theory is that inherent control systems based upon internalized values are a more successful means of achieving coordination than external controls systems which are based on explicit rules and regulations (Denison, 1995). Consistency is the necessary basis of power, direction, formation and integration and can generate an internal system depending on the support of all involved. Most effective organization seems to merge the consistency and involvement principles in continual cycles. (Denison, 1995) 2.5 MEASURING CORPORATE CULTURE Organizations are meant to understand their existing corporate culture before deciding to develop or make changes to their organizations strategy. Measuring corporate culture in the organization is the greatest technique to develop the understanding. Qualitative method can be used to study the corporate culture (Siehl and Martin 1988); however, the benefits may possibly be purchased at a cost while typically the gathered data cannot structure the basics for systematic contrasts. Corporate culture can be examined theoretically through contrasts among the departments in the organization, it is also very important to contrast the memberÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã‚ ¸s reply with the organization to understand the feature of culture. Data can be gathered from various departments in the same corporation which will assist in the contrast. There are a variety of ways of measuring corporate culture depending on the cultures makeup. The cultures elements can be observable, for instance quantitative methods or conscious like behaviors and values. Corporate culture was defined in previous sections as behaviors, norms and values, which lay emphasis on the conscious elements. It can also be measured using the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, which includes interviews, questionnaire and surveys, to examine and the cultural trend (Rosseau 1990). According to (Xenikou and furnham 1996), the questionnaires must be used in order to measure organizational culture. Learned scholars, Researchers and also managers are using questionnaire in measuring corporate culture, since they are keen on understanding and amending corporate culture where necessary. Several empirical studies have been conducted to measure quantitatively corporate culture which was done by various researchers; for instance (Cooke and Laffertys 1989) developed a culture questionnaire in Organizational Culture Inventory, while (OReilly et al, 1991) developed Organizational Culture Profile. Denison and William Neale has developed the Denison Organizational Culture Survey which is used in testing the link among corporate culture and financial performance measures such as profitability, improvement, market share, growth of sales, values and the satisfaction of employees. This research will be based on Denisons questionnaire, and will be used to find the relation between corporate culture and customer satisfaction in the retail sector using (ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦) 2.6 IMPACT OF CORPORATE CULTURE ON ANY ORGANIZATION In recent times, corporate culture has captured the attention of many organizations due to its effect on the organizations achievement. Researchers such as (kotter and heskett 1992) believed that there is a long lasting effect of corporate culture on the performance of the organizations. (Schwartz and davis 1981, choe 1993, Rashid and anantharaman 1997 ) supposed that there a relationship between organizational strategy and corporate culture, especially in the application in an organization of a particular strategy. Corporate culture is one of the most significant elements in the range of the behavior performance in any organization, particularly in understanding the structure of the organization. This means that the success or otherwise of the organization in accomplishing its objectives and target was influenced by the corporate culture. 2.2 Customer satisfaction Survival in todays highly competitive markets means that it is imperative that organisations have to provide services that lead to highly satisfied and loyal customers (Westbrook and Oliver, 1991). Customer satisfaction is currently the new standard by which customers are measuring business performance Nagel and Cilliers (1990, p. 4). Customer satisfaction is an organizations capacity to create awareness, attention and retain customers and also to develop customer relationship over a certain period of time. Most at times, it is often seen as the satisfaction benefited from the products or services of an organization. In addition, it is considered to be the key to a successful and long-term competitiveness. The understanding of customer satisfaction is the means of realizing the customers expectations, a source for gaining, retaining and studying organizational effectiveness in the course of service delivery. All organisations are confronted with the challenge of discovering the critical factors that influences customer satisfaction and loyalty (McDougall and Levesque, 1992) and can decide on the actions necessary in meeting customer desires if it understands perceptions. In Deshpande et al.s (1993, p. 27) definition, customer orientation is: . . . the set of beliefs that put the customers interest first, while not excluding those of other stakeholders such as owners, managers and employees, in order to develop a long-term profitable enterprise. (Slater and Narver, 1994) sees customer orientation as basically associated with customers welfare, listening to the voice of the customers and delivering service and solutions based on their best interest and wants. In recent years, several researchers have opined that organisations centering their activities on the needs of their customers perform better than those companies that do not, will more likely to meet long-term goals and increased financial performance (Homburg et al., 2002; Lytle and Timmerman, 2006; Narver and Slater, 1990). According to Darby et al.s (1997), the level of customer satisfaction can be measured through the extent to which employees show customer service orientation. Fornell et al. (1996, p96) highlight the significance of the relationship between customer satisfaction and perceived value. They identified three backgrounds of customer satisfaction as perceived value, perceived quality, and customer expectations. Some other literature also supports the relationship between customers perceived value and customer satisfaction (Hellier et al., 2003). According to (Eggert and Ulaga, 2002), perceived value can either be pre- or post-purchased as customers seek additional benefit in contrast to the cost at the time of purchase of a product or service. (Ambro and Praprotnik, 2008), argued that customer satisfaction is a concept that cannot be universally used as its meaning is based on different conditions and different points of view and is the result of individual customer judgments. Several other researchers of customer satisfaction have introduced different concepts and different views of organizational performance outcome. In Rust et al.s (1996) opinion, customer service is seen to be all about perceptions. This is more so since service cannot be tested before it is sold, and can neither be stored, returned nor exchanged. Based on this, customers understanding of service experience and interpretation of it is the crux of the matter (Gro ¨nroos, 2001; Ross, 1995). Wilson (2002) opined that customer satisfaction is vague and complex in nature, and is generally comprised of various components measured with different methods under different conditions. ONeill and Palmer (2004) see customer satisfaction as a cognitive concept and as a state of the mind. Edvardsson (1996) argues that customer satisfaction is an individualistic concept which is uniquely understood by individual customers. This paves way for the assumption that customer satisfaction can be understood to be a web of psychological, social and physical variables, which is associated with the perceptions of a satisfied customer. Anderson, Fornell, and Lehman (1994) argue that customer satisfaction is first and foremost an emotional state of mind and the outcome of the long-term relationship between customers and service providers. Ning-jun Zhang et al (2007) show that employees are to an extent emotionally dependent on the organization and this encourages their efforts to satisfy customers. Parasuraman, Zeithaml Berry (1988) see customer satisfaction in terms of qualitative and quantitative elements of the service. Zeithaml Bitner (2000) suggested a simpler definition of customer satisfaction based on the level of customer needs and expected satisfaction, which directly affects the degree of customer dissatisfaction. (Bolton and Drew 1991; Parasuraman; Zeithaml, and Berry 1988) opined that customer satisfaction is used to measure future customer expectations while quality measures future customer service expectation, the outcome they say is this they say is the relation between expectations and performance. According to (Ambro and Praprotnik, 2008), there has been the emergence of two definitions of customer satisfaction. The first type defines customer satisfaction as an outcome of a buying experience (Westbrook and Reilly, 1983), while the second definition sees customer satisfaction as a benchmark between the actual purchase and the purchase expectations of the customer (Hunt, 1977). Researchers have found a strong and positive relationship between customer satisfaction and intentions to repurchase (Anderson and Sullivan, 1993; Mittal and Kamakura, 2001; Oliver, 1980). Nonetheless, the connection between satisfaction and actual loyalty behavior is still ambiguous, and the relationships that occur between satisfaction, intentions and actual behavior is still confusing (Rust et al, 1995) Regardless of its complexity, customers do not have any problems with the definition of satisfaction even if it is not deliberately explained (Gupta and Zeithaml, 2007). This is the reason it is so important that the management of a service organization primarily sees the customers point of view of the organisations strength that results in delivering the service that fulfils the customers social, personal and physical expectations regarding service quality. Service organizations must consider customer satisfaction as a key leverage point to differentiate themselves from other organisations (Gillespie et al, 2007). Customer satisfaction is the outcome of his or her needs and expectations which influence the interaction with service providers and other customers. The quality of this interaction impacts customer decisions to repurchase the service, his retention and the intention of the customer to recommend to other potential customers and finally to pass on useful information about the service quality and delivery. Customer satisfaction is related to different ways of interacting with the environment. A positive recommendation is a social interaction, which is positively related to customer retention, reduces transaction costs and increases long-term profitability (Jamieson, 1994, Mackey, 2005). Word of mouth has great communication power because it is a direct transmission of customer satisfaction to other potential customers. Weinberger, Allen and Dillon (1981) and Herr et al (1991), are convinced that word of mouth is more important than information about service generated by marketing activ ities. The communication power of word of mouth is manifested when the service provider fails to meet the complaints of the customer or his reactions are not congruent with the customer demands. The highest importance of word of mouth is when customer reaction to the service provider is negative (Richins, 1983). The result of negative perceptions is a dissatisfied customer, who rarely decides to repurchase the service from the same provider (Newman and Werbel, 1973). The worst case is when a customer refuses to buy another service from the same provider (Fitzgibbon and White, 2007). Word of mouth is closely related to the customer intentions to repurchase the service (Gupta and Zeithaml, 2007). Customer satisfaction in service industries To survive in highly competitive markets, organisations need to provide services that yield highly satisfied and loyal customers (Westbrook and Oliver, 1991). As Nagel and Cilliers (1990, p. 4) claimed, customer satisfaction is currently the new standard by which customers are measuring business performance. Satisfied customers are more inclined to be loyal, producing several benefits for organisations (Asif and Sargeant, 2000; Hansemark and Albinsson, 2004; Reichheld and Sasser, 1990). First, repeat business generates income. Second, it limits costs related to acquiring new customers, such as advertising, promotion and start-up activities. Third, satisfied customers often spread the good news and recommend products and services to others. Consequently, customer satisfaction is considered to be a key to organisational survival (Jones and Sasser, 1995), as well as increased market share (Rust et al., 1992) and profitability (Heskett et al., 1994). All organisations are faced with the challenge of identifying the critical factors that determine customer satisfaction and loyalty (McDougall and Levesque, 1992). Nevertheless, the service industry has several particularities that need to be taken into account. Services are more or less intangible, their production and consumption are inseparable, and customers are at least to some extent active participants in their production process while service production and consumption are simultaneous (Gro ¨nroos, 1982, 1988). Moreover, due to the fact that the production process of services involves employee-customer interaction, it is hard to ensure consistency and reliability (Haysa and Hill, 2000; Jun et al., 1998). For all these reasons, customers perception of the service experience is frequently the only way accurately to estimate quality level of services provided (Babakus and Mangold, 1992). This is probably the reason why the argument that customers are greatly influenced by their interaction with employees when assessing services provided is gaining increased recognition within the services industry (Boshoff and Tait, 1996).

Discussing The Issues Of Sexism Essay - 985 Words

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Much of the class seems to be primarily discussion-based, and the emphasis on talking with my fellow classmates about subjects such as racism, white privilege, sexism, homophobia, and other social issues helps create a very productive environment in which these topics can be discussed openly and with maturity and respect. The method of having students talk to other, individual classmates before the class as a whole reconvenes for

Plans of Superannuation Organization Free-Samples for Students

Questions 1.Because members of Superannuation Plans are likely to be Significantly different from Company Shareholders, Normal Commercial Accounting reports may be unsuitable for Superannuation pPans. Do you agree with this Statement? Explain your reasons why or why not.2.Discuss how the Introduction of AASB 1056 is likely to affect member understanding of the Reports. Answers: 1.For superannuation plans two types of reports are prepared namely the individual financial statement that is used by the financial statements to be used by the members and the secondly the general purpose financial statement. This type of report is not administered by any kind of standard since it helps the members in decision-making. It helps users in making choices in setting aside the money in their superannuation fund. The statement is cautiously scrutinised prior to releasing to the public (Cummins, 2015). Members of the superannuation plan are different from the company shareholders and the individual financial statement is important for the members to have a detailed view on their current assets and contribution since every member have different superannuation plan. The general-purpose financial statement provides the users with the information as to where these funds actually used by the trustees. It raises questions concerning the as how the trustees use the superannuation fund to sustainably pay their beneficiaries. As stated under AASB 25 and AASB 102 that the report provides members with an overview of the plans (Galloway, 2014). It assist in the procedure of decision making for members in tailoring their choice that suits their needs. Apart from this, members will also have special interest regarding the performance of the trustees towards efficient management and their ability to generate and distribute according to the degree of benefit. 2.A superannuation organisation must disclose the information, which provides the users with basis for understanding the liabilities of members. According to AG30 paragraph 23 mandates a superannuation organisation to disclose those information that provides the users with the basis for understanding the liability of the members. Paragraph 24 (a) mandatorily requires a superannuation organisation to treat its defined contribution members liabilities in accordance with the scope of AASB 7 with the objective of disclosing the information regarding the credit risk, market risk and liquidity risk (Stannard, 2017). The fair value of disclosure requirements of AASB 7 is not required to be applied in relation to the members liabilities. While making the application of relevant principle and requirements of AASB 7 regarding the credit, market and liquidity risk an organisation is required to provide considerations to the characteristics of members by determining the information that it would provide (Fund, 2014). The entity may consider disclosing information through a mechanism by which market risk is passed on the members by frequently crediting the members account. Reference Cummins, C. (2015). The gold standard.Superfunds Magazine, (408), 42. Fund, R. T. S. S. (2014). Financial statements For the year ended 30 June 2010. Galloway, D. (2014). How regulation costs members.Investment Magazine, (107), 30. Stannard, J. (2017). Fund reporting and disclosure: Obligations are ever-

Contemporary Issue on Aesthetic Labour in Hospitality Essay Example

Contemporary Issue on Aesthetic Labour in Hospitality Paper Service jobs now account for around three quarters of all jobs in the UK, with retail and hospitality alone providing nearly five million jobs (Hospitality Training Foundation, 2003; University of Warwick, 2004). Organization in the hospitality industry vary enormously, ranging from first class and luxury hotels providing extravagant, full 24-hour service to the more homely comforts of a bed and breakfast establishment; from fast food restaurants to Michelin starred restaurant. In turn, the jobs provided by these organizations demand a variety of skills and attributes from those employees interacting with customers. Increasingly, though, there is an appreciation that employees in these jobs not only provide desired levels of service in terms of responding to customers in a friendly and sociable manner but can also be part of the branding of service companies by becoming, in words of Zeithaml and Bitner (2003, 318), ‘walking billboards’. Witz, Warhurst and Nickson (2003: 44) point out that, for many companies, employees have become part of this branding exercise, with ‘aesthetic labourers †¦ the animate component of the material culture that makes up the corporate landscape’. Aesthetic labour is a concept based on the notion that employers in parts of the service industries described as the ‘style labour market’ (Nickson, Warhurst and Dutton, 2004: 3), such as boutique hotels, designer retailers and style cafes, bars and restaurants, require ‘aesthetic skills’ in addition to social and technical skills from their workers (Warhurst and Nickson, 2005). The genesis of aesthetic labour as a concept lays in early 1990s of newspaper job advertisements that stipulated the attractiveness of applicants as recruitment and selection criteria in the hospitality industry. We will write a custom essay sample on Contemporary Issue on Aesthetic Labour in Hospitality specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Contemporary Issue on Aesthetic Labour in Hospitality specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Contemporary Issue on Aesthetic Labour in Hospitality specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The term ‘aesthetic labour’ is analytically complex. It refers to the hiring of people with certain capacities and attributes that favourably appeal to customers and which are then developed through training and/ or monitoring. It has become translated in the popular imagination as those people who are employed on the basis of ‘looking good’ and/ or ‘sounding right’. In its tabloidized form, along with sexism, racism and ageism, ‘lookism’ is now offered as one of the key issues of the contemporary workplace (Oaff, 2003). Further analysis of the definition of aesthetics reveals another close relation of the spiritual self with aesthetic labour. The definition proposed by Greek philosopher aisthanomai meaning â€Å"perception by mean of the senses and danaher, shiprato and webb (2000: 161) cite â€Å"the art of the self†. The constituent of the spiritual essence of self constitute the mind, emotion, senses which are spiritual aspect in the formation of personality, attitude and appearance apparently expressed in the process of self presentation. This is the relative aspect of the spiritual self, manifesting aesthetic presentation of self. The definition clearly implies development of self is an art associated with the mind. LOCATING AND EXTENDING THE EVIDENCE FOR AESTHETIC LABOUR In hospitality, organizations too have been concerned with their workers’ labour of aesthetic both in the past and the present. The mobilization of this labour is increasingly a corporate strategy, less ad hoc and more systematic, for some hospitality employers, featuring in their hiring and management of employees. Aiming to portray a company image and create an appealing service encounter for the customers, employers in hospitality are increasingly drawing upon the corporeal skills of their workplace. Employees, for example, are hired because of the way they look and talk; once employed, staff are instructed how to stand whilst working, what to wear and how to wear it and even what to say to customer. Aesthetic labour is the mobilization, development and commodification of embodied dispositions. These disposition, are form of embodied capacities and attributes, are to an extent possessed by worker at the point of entry to employment. However, and importantly, employers then mobilize, develop and commodify these dispositions though processes of recruitment, selection, training, monitoring, discipline and reward, reconfiguring them as skills intended to produce a style of service encounter that appeals to the senses of customers, most usually visually or aurally. In other words, distinct modes of worker embodiment are organizationally prescribed and produced for corporate benefit, with these workers becoming ‘aesthetic labours’. RECRUITMENT, SELECTION AND TRAINING THE AESTHETIC LABOUR Generally for much interactive service work, studies consistently report high levels of informality in recruitment and selection, including things such as word of mouth, referrals and casual callers, especially in the hospitality industry. (Lockyer and Scholarios, 2004) Moreover, in customer service work, recruitment and selection is more likely to be based on people’s social and aesthetic skills rather than technical skills (Scottish Centre for Employment Research, 2004). Thus, managers’ preference for recruitment and selection in service work has tended to focus of the attitude and appearance of applicants, or their personality and increasingly their image and self-presentation. The trend for employers to choose staff based on their personal appearance and speech is particularly prevalent in the rapidly expanding service sector, where workers usually have direct contact with the public. For example, in a survey of skill needs in hotels, restaurants, pubs and bars, 85 percent of employers ranked personal presentation and above initiative, communication skills or even ability to follow instructions. Additionally, jobs ads for the hospitality sectors regularly ask for people who are stylish, outgoing, attractive or trendy and well-spoken and of smart appearance (Worklife Report, 2001). But as the economy shifts toward â€Å"high touch† jobs the trend is spreading to the wider job market. More and more employers are looking for staff who are pleasing to the eye and ear and who reflect their company image (Worklife Report, 2001). The employers believed that having staff that look good and/or sound right not only helped companies create a distinct image on the high street but also provided competitive advantage for their companies in the crowded hospitality industries. The study revealed that companies in the service sector desired and developed employees who could become the physical embodiment of the image and personality of their companies. As one respondent stated about her company’s recruitment and selection, they want: ‘†¦ people that look the part †¦ fit in with the whole concept of the hotel’ (Nickson et al. , 2001: 180). On a practical level, this strategy, featuring a ‘style of service’ is intend to have workers create competitive advantage for employers in often highly competitive markets either by simply positively appealing to the senses of customer-by having pleasing looking staff-or by embodying the prescribed corporate image-employees as ‘walking billboard’. To affect this possibility, employers need to regulate the sight and/ or sound and their workers (most obviously). This regulation also has a conceptual dimension, for a double shift has occurred as services have displaced manufacturing. The first and most cited shift is a quantitative one: the increase in the number of jobs now provided by services. The second shift is qualitative and less appreciated: the nature of work with service jobs has change. In hospitality, employers seek employees with personal characteristics likely to make them act spontaneous and perform effectively. Soft skills or self-presentation skills are more important selection criteria than technical skills for employers (Scottish Centre for Employment Research, 2004). To discern such characteristics and attributes most employers from the surveyed organisation relied on the so-called ‘class trio’ of application forms and/ or CVs, interviews and references. The interview remains a popular method with manager and applicants alike as it is simple, quick and cheap-despite reliability concern. In recognizing the labour of aesthetics and its importance to employers, academics are playing catch up. Employers, even if not a corporate strategy of aesthetic labour, want presentable employees with aesthetic appeal. In hospitality, there is a clear pattern of employers’ skill demands. Jackson et al. (2002) point out in their analysis of sales and personal services’ job advertisements that the skills stated as necessary by employers are social skills and personal characteristics’. Likewise, a recent examination of nearly 100 human resource professionals in the USA responsible for hiring entry-level hospitality industry employees revealed that the top two criteria were: ‘pride in appearance’ and ‘good attitude’ (Martin and Grove, 2002) The emergence of these new skill raise a number of issue about training: firstly where aesthetic skills are formed; secondly if and if so how, such skills may be accredited and trained. All organizations train staff. Most of this training is centred on that mandated, and for all employees: health and safety for example. Such training is a feature of the hospitality industry. Beyond that which is mandatory, other than for management and professional staff, training is relatively poor at least in UK. Training for part-time workers, who feature heavily in the hospitality workplace, is particular weak. With the decline of manufacturing and the rise in service jobs, and the demised of training featuring physical dexterity and technical ‘know how’, where it does occur the training emphasis has also shifted. Training is provided in customer service skills, instructing employees in body language, verbal interaction with customer (what to say and how to say it) and dress codes and uniform standards.

20th Century Essay Research Paper The 1920s free essay sample

twentieth Century Essay, Research Paper The 1920s in America were times of great alteration. Coming out of the horror of the First World War, society exploded in a million different waies. The Twenties saw adult females voting, the Harlem Renaissance, and an unbelievable explosion of richness for the in-between category. With cars and contraptions made people # 8217 ; s lives easier and gave them more leisure clip. The unbelievable, rapid alteration that struck the state is clearly illustrated by adult females # 8217 ; s manners of the decennary. Woman in the 1900s went from cover-up to demoing parts of their organic structure, in merely a short period of 20 old ages. Women? s manners in pre WWI and in the 1920s have many differences and similarities. There are many differences in adult females? s manners in pre WWI and 1920s. In the first half of this century, every imaginable possibility in hat shop design was explored: from the excessive chapeaus of the early 1900s, to the elegant cloche chapeaus of the 1920s. We will write a custom essay sample on 20th Century Essay Research Paper The 1920s or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Both twenty-four hours and dark, hemlines were to the floor ; eveningwear ( and some daywear ) was even longer, in the 1900s. In the 1920s, the salient characteristics of adult females # 8217 ; s twenty-four hours wear vesture are short skirts and dropped waistlines. Then flushing wear became straighter and shorter, after which daytime wear copied it. It was in flushing wear that the inventions of mid-twentiess manner foremost appeared. By 1926, adult females who grew up in a universe that hardly acknowledged articulatio genuss were about have oning their frocks above them. In the 1900s, adult females covered up their cervixs, but adult females in the 1920s showed their cervixs. The manner of hair in the 1900s was an? up? hair make. The 1920s clip period was # 8220 ; bobbed # 8221 ; hair. First introduced during and merely after World War I and popularized by Irene Castle ( amongst others ) , bobbed hair created a esthesis. The impact of bobbed hair and all it was felt to stand for was tremendous. In the 1900s, adult females wore runs. The taille is merely waist-length with the hem made to look like a satin belt. The top cloth defines a V neckline supposed to look as though a lacing vest and undergarment showed in the gap. In fact, the all of it is sewn into the forepart parts and closed with patent buttons. The arms are tight and wrist- length. Black cloth is about the worst to acquire a good expression at # 8230 ; To the right of the gap is the border of the base bodice, marked by the substituting maulerss and eyes that close it. Immediately left from it protrudes the in-between lacing flap that covers the vitamin D? colletage, onto which the neckband is sewed. In the 1920s, adult females wore silhouettes. The silhouettes of the earlier portion of the decennary are long and cylindrical, with the skirt falling 7 # 8243 ; to 10 # 8243 ; below the articulatio genus. Despite the comparatively simple silhouette, the broad assortment of item was amazing. Even cheap, ready-made vesture from catalog and concatenation shops such as Sears portrayed an inventive scope of cuts and trims. The silhouette of the early mid-twentiess was still rooted in the shirtwaist and skirt manner of the teens. It was in high manner that the long consecutive silhouette started to acquire a toe-hold. In the 1900s, adult females? s? apparels were light colourss and in the 1920s, they were darker and more outstanding. There are similarities in adult females? s manners in pre WWI and the 1920s. Womans wore chapeaus, chapeaus were ever worn, even today. Women wore frocks all twenty-four hours. Their twenty-four hours wear vesture was ever more insouciant than the eventide wear. Womans wore long silhouettes. Manner was really of import to adult females in both periods. In decision, postwar disillusionment lead to many societal alterations during the 1920s. Womans? s manners is one societal alteration that occurred in 1920s with pre WWI civilization. There are many differences and similarities between adult females? s manners in pre WWI and 1920s. The flapper plays a great function in the changing of adult females? s manner. The flapper challenged the yesteryear societal functions of adult females by basking the same freedom as work forces and dressed in a manner their female parent and grandma wouldn? T believe possible.

Disability Attorneys of Michigan Help a Local Vietnam Veteran Get Disability Benefits

Disability Attorneys of Michigan Help a Local Vietnam Veteran Get Disability Benefits Disability Attorneys of Michigan Help a Local Vietnam Veteran Get Disability Benefits Tom is a Navy veteran who served in Vietnam, and was diagnosed with an illness related to his time in the service, but he was repeatedly denied benefits from the VA. Tom heard about Disability Attorneys of Michigan and called us for help.We fought and proved Tom’s illness was related to his military service and were able to win a large settlement along with the monthly Veterans Disability Benefits our client Tom deserved.If you are a veteran who is unable to hold gainful employment due to a physical or mental impairment call Disability Attorneys of Michigan at 800-949-2900. We will work hard to protect your rights and we will fight to get you the disability benefits you need. Disability Attorneys of Michigan have helped thousands of people win the  disability benefits they need. Living with a disability is hard enough, but without income life is a real struggle.Call Disability Attorneys of Michigan for a free  confidential consultation. We’ll let you know if we can help you get a monthly check. If we do not win your disability case, you owe us nothing. We only get paid if we win your disability benefits claim.Disability Attorneys of Michigan work hard every day helping the disabled of Michigan seek the disability benefits they need. If you are unable to work, contact Disability Attorneys of Michigan now for a free consultation at 800-949- 2900.Let Michigan’s Leading Social Security Disability Law Firm Help You Get The Benefits You Deserve.Disability Attorneys of Michigan. Compassionate Excellence. Disability Attorneys, Disability Attorneys of Michigan, TV Commercial, Veterans Disability, Veterans Disability Attorneys, Veterans Disability lawyer, Veterans Disability Lawyers

Other Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Other - Assignment Example This implies the university wants to obtain as much finances as it can (total revenue) from the fewer students who are expected to enroll for the services. By doing so, the university would have settled all the expenses it incurred to provide the services in the first place. As Beattie and LaFrance (2006) suggested, by choosing to increase the tuition fees, the university is likely to be engaging in price skimming in order to obtain maximum revenue. This is a pricing policy in which an organization sets a fairly high price for a good or service at its inception then reduces it over time (Bailey, Olson, & Wonnacott, 1980). It is a transient strategy of price discrimination quicker offsetting of potential losses. The strategy would allow Nobody University to reclaim its lost expenditure faster before competition from other similar institutions sets in and forces the market price downward for tuition services. Feess and Schumacher (2013) noted that price skimming may be used interchangeably with scaling down the demand curve. The institution’s main objective of implementing the strategy is to capitalize on the consumer surplus ahead of time so as to reap major benefits of the monopoly or the innovators’ poor price sensitivity. As such, Nobody University is likely to be a new institution that seeks to obtain the highest return on investment through its higher price strategy at its inception before normalizing the fee for a higher demand for learning. As Bailey, Olson and Wonnacott (1980) argued, meeting the demand of the first group of students will likely trigger the university to reduce the fee to entice another segment that is more concerned about fairer pricing. As Feess and Schumacher (2013) suggested, the university pricing strategy is theoretical in the sense that it is almost unlikely for the approach to turn the entire surplus of students into clients, despite its major potential impact on market

Operations Managment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Operations Managment - Essay Example Through the utilization of new technological applications, the said process of recruiting shall be given the most important development it is expected to take to cater to the needs of the growing number of applicants. Computers and the benefits that it provides the society has made the present generation of humanity what it needs in terms of technological assistance. Along with this, several other supporting programs were then produced to be able to give answer to other demands of the society from computing operations. Yes, it just gets better every time. Some programs are created for individuals, while some are created especially for business companies, which are controlling the global economic stability of the society today. All these programs are considered assistance for users for them to be able to have better access to the technological innovations brought about by computing operations. According to an article entitled "Computer-Tool or Tyrant", Computers, through the history of mankind have provided the society with the necessary assistance at times even more than that as it continuously develop for better applications. This claim is especially true when the talk is all about companies who are dealing with multitasking in their daily activities. The storage of the files that are needed to be kept for record could not be done through the traditional file-shelves system. Hence, the introduction of programs and operating systems brought so much ease to this so called corporal responsibilities and duties. In this paper, a suggested process of operations management using the computer office operations shall be presented so as to assist in the process of shortening the time by which an institution approves the application of hopefuls who want to enroll in Marine Officer Programs offered by the organization. Through the said process to be suggested, it is expected that the process of application would become more efficient and the process of approval be less time consuming thus allowing the personnel of the organization to put their attention to more important things such as improving the whole program for the enrollees. The Importance of Knowing How OS Works Living in such a technologically driven world, it could not be denied that the interest of people in the developing systems of computing operations is also growing. As the computing operations and applications develop, the demands of the society from the benefits that it provides for the individuals and the large organizational companies also increases. The discussion that shall be presented herein Technology too, controls the present situation of the global economy. In fact, the internet applications have completely revolutionized the processes by which trade systems are operating in the current business industry. Certainly, it could be noticed that the production of operating systems that are ready to provide business entrepreneurs with the assistance that they need to be able to cope up with the global competition of industries, the global economy tends to grow even bigger and more stable. The discussion that would be presented in this paper then shall give a clear vision on how Linux is able to provide the said needs of companies worldwide. What is it that makes Linux one of the most reliable operating

Statistics for Managers Class Discussion wk1 Essay

Statistics for Managers Class Discussion wk1 - Essay Example Two separate samples were used in the study. The total number of women and girls in the study are 2657 and 1008 respectively (Wiley, 2011). After the analysis, it was established that the association between the occurrence of milk intake of infants aged between 5-12 years and age at the first occurrence of menstruation was weak. There are numerous instances where statistics has been used in business. For instance, Barger King used information gathered from customers to determine their buying trends and preferences. This information was obtained from their credit cards as they are always required to provide their private information. The company successfully managed to gather information from their credit cards. The impact of their statistics is that they managed to improve their sales (Anderson, Sweeney & Williams, 2012). After obtaining relevant information, the company identified areas with many potential customers and their preferences. One of the true values of statistics in business is the operational value. Numerous organizations depend on IT systems to control data, ease payment process and run operations. Unpredicted logjams can take place when IT runs an essential system improvement. It means that the execution will stop and momentarily preventing business from operating efficiently. To solve this problem, organizations use IT systems with statistical procedures to determine the probable cause of the bottlenecks before their operations are interrupted. Other operational advantages of statistics include correct demand estimation and satisfactory inventory

Youth Mental Health Issues

Youth Mental Health Issues Mental and substance use disorders are among the most important health issues facing Australians. They are a key health issue for young people in their teenage years and early 20s and, if these disorders persist, the constraints, distress and disability they cause can last for decades (McGorry et al., 2007). Associated with mental disorders among youth are high rates of enduring disability, including school failure, impaired or unstable employment, and poor family and social functioning. These problems lead to spirals of dysfunction and disadvantage that are difficult to reverse. (McGorry et al., 2007). As over 75% of mental disorders commence before the age of 25 years, reducing the economic, geographical, attitudinal and service organisation barriers for adolescents and young adults is an essential first step in addressing mental health problems (Hickie and McGorry, 2007). In Australia, rates of mental illness among young people is higher than for any other population group and represented the major burden of disease for young people with depression making the greatest contribution to this burden. In addition, youth suicide and self-harm have both steadily increased during the 1990s (Williams et al., 2005). 60% of all health-related disability costs in 15 34-year-olds are attributable to mental health problems, and of the total disability years lived in Australia, 27% is attributable to mental disorders. Although most common mental disorders commence before 18 years of age, people aged 25 44 years and 45 64 years are more than twice as likely as those aged under 25 years to receive an active treatment when seen in general practice (Hickie et al., 2005). Research has indicated that some mental health problems can be prevented through appropriate early intervention, and that the impact of existing mental illness can be mitigated through the early provision of appropriate services (Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT, 2006). It has been estimated that up to 60% of cases of alcohol or other substance misuse could be prevented by earlier treatment of common mental health problems (Hickie et al., 2005). Despite the enthusiastic efforts of many clinicians around Australia, progress in service reform has plateaued, remains piecemeal and is frustratingly slow in contrast to what has been achieved in other countries, many of which began by emulating Australia. In addition, the specialist mental health system is seriously under-funded (McGorry and Yung, 2003). While Australia s national health spending continues to grow past $72 billion the total recurrent mental health spending has consistently remained below 7% of this figure (Hickie et al., 2005). The need for coordinated national health and welfare services for people with mental health and substance misuse problems has been recognised by all Australian governments, but insufficient investment, lack of accountability, divided systems of government and changing health care demands resulted in a very patchy set of reforms (Hickie and McGorry, 2007; Vimpani, 2005). Statistics regarding the problem Close to one in five people in Australia were affected by a mental health problem within a 12-month period, according to the National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Young adults were particularly affected, with more than one-quarter of Australians aged 18 to 24 years suffering from at least one mental disorder over a 12-month period (Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT, 2006). In Australia, the prevalence of mental health problems among children aged 4 12 years lies between 7% and 14%, rises to 19% among adolescents aged 13 17 years, and increases again to 27% among young adults aged 18 24. Therefore, up to one in four young people in Australia are likely to be suffering from a mental health problem, with substance misuse or dependency, depression or anxiety disorder, or some combination of these the most common issues (McGorry et al., 2007). It is therefore more likely that mental health problems will develop between the ages of 12 and 26 than in any other stage of life (Orygen Youth Health, 2009). This situation also exists among Australian Indigenous communities, where the continuing grief and trauma resulting from the loss of traditional lands and cultural practices as a result of colonization, past policies of child removal and the destruction of traditional governance arrangements within Aboriginal communities, are an ever-present cultural reality that plays out in some of the worst developmental health and well-being outcomes in advanced industrial society (Vimpani, 2005). Risk taking by young people Studies show that psychosocial issues form a great burden of disease for young people, including intentional and unintentional injuries, mental disorders, tobacco, alcohol and other substance misuse, and unprotected sexual intercourse (Tylee et al., 2007). The pathways to substance misuse in young people involve complex interplay between individual biological and psychological vulnerability, familial factors and broader societal influences. The impact on family and society is often painful, destructive and expensive (Vimpani, 2005). In 2005, nearly half of all deaths of young men and a third of young women aged 15 34 years in NSW were due to suicide, transport accidents or accidental drug overdoses (418 persons; ABS, 2008b). In 2007, amongst young men in the age group 15-24 in NSW, the average age for first consumption of alcohol was around 15, and amongst women of the same age group, the average age for first use of alcohol was around 17 years. In addition to its potential direct health consequences, risky or high risk drinking can increase the likelihood of a person falling, or being involved in an accident or violence (ABS, 2008a). 71% of persons aged 14-19 and 89.4% of persons aged 20-29 were current drinkers. 27.6% of persons aged 14-19 (40.5% at the age of 20-29) were at risk of short term harm, while 10% (14.7% at the age of 20-29) were at risk of long term harm. Around 90% of Australian youth (aged 18 24 years) have drinking patterns that place them at high risk of acute harm (Lubmen et al., 2007). On av erage, 25 percent of hospitalisations of 15-24 year olds occur as a result of alcohol consumption (Prime Minister of Australia, 2008). Almost one-quarter (23%) of people aged 15 24 years in Australia reported using illicit drugs during the last 12 months, around twice as high as the proportion of people aged 25 years and over (11%). Marijuana/cannabis was the most common drug used by 15 24 year olds (18%), followed by ecstasy (9%), and meth/amphetamines and pharmaceuticals (both 4%). Barriers to provision and use of health services Primary-care health services are sometimes still not available. They may be inaccessible for a variety of reasons such as cost, lack of convenience or lack of publicity and visibility. Health services might not be acceptable to young people, however, even if available and accessible. Fear about lack of confidentiality (particularly from parents) is a major reason for young people s reluctance to seek help, as well as possible stigma, fear of difficult questions. In addition, health professionals might not be trained in communicating with young people. If and when young people seek help, some may be unhappy with the consultation and determine not to go back. To ensure prevention and early intervention efforts, clinicians and public-health workers are increasingly recognising the pressing need to overcome the many barriers that hinder the provision and use of health services by young people, and to transform the negative image of health facilities to one of welcoming user-friendly sett ings (Tylee et al., 2007). Spending in the area remains poor, and service access and tenure are actively withheld in most specialist mental health and substance misuse service systems until high levels of risk or danger are reached, or severe illness, sustained disability and chronicity are entrenched. Thus, just when mental health services are most needed by young people and their families, they are often inaccessible or unacceptable in design, style and quality. Moreover, numerous young people with distressing and disabling mental health difficulties struggle to find age-appropriate assistance. Young people with moderately severe non-psychotic disorders (eg, depression, anxiety disorders and personality disorders), and those with comorbid substance use and mental health issues, are particularly vulnerable. For many of these young people, if they survive (and many do not), their difficulties eventually become chronic and disabling (McGorry et al., 2007). Another barrier is related to the manners in which young people seek help when they have a mental problem. The most recent national survey data for Australia show that only 29% of children and adolescents with a mental health problem had been in contact with a professional service of any type in a 12-month period. Some subgroups, such as young males, young Indigenous Australians and migrants may be even less likely to voluntarily seek professional help when needed. If young people want to talk to anyone, it is generally someone they know and trust and when they do seek professional help, it is from the more familiar sources family doctors and school-based counsellors. However, many young people at high risk of mental health problems do not have links to work, school, or even a family doctor (Rickwood, Deane and Wilson, 2007). Furthermore, mental disorders are not well recognized by the public. The initial Australian survey of mental health literacy showed that many people cannot give the correct psychiatric label to a disorder portrayed in a depression or schizophrenia vignette. There is also a gap in beliefs about treatment between the public and mental-health professionals: the biggest gap is in beliefs about medication for both depression and schizophrenia, and admission to a psychiatric ward for schizophrenia (Jorm et al., 2006). Existing resources: Knowledge, policy and programs Existing knowledge: Manners of interventions Prevention and early intervention programs are normally classified into four types: universal programs are presented to all regardless of symptoms; selective programs target children and adolescents who are at risk of developing a disorder by virtue of particular risk factors, such as being children of a depressed parent; indicated programs are delivered to students with early or mild symptoms of a disorder; and treatment programs are provided for those diagnosed with the disorder (Neil Christensen, 2007). Universal prevention programs target all young people in the community regardless of their level of risk, and include economic measures, social marketing, and regulatory control and law enforcement initiatives, as well as a range of psychosocial programs (Lubmen et al., 2007). In addition, interventions can be divided between promotion and prevention programs. Mental health promotion refers to activity designed to enhance emotional wellbeing, or increase public understanding of mental health issues and reduce the stigma surrounding mental illness. Prevention of mental illness may focus on at risk groups or sectors of the whole population. (Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT, 2006). Source: Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT (2006). Finally, collaborative care is typically described as a multifaceted intervention involving combinations of distinct professionals working collaboratively within the primary care setting. Collaborative care not only improves depression outcomes in months, but has been found to show benefits for up to 5 years (Hickie and McGorry, 2007). The importance of early intervention In the last two decades research demonstrated the high importance of early intervention to promote youth mental health and cope with mental disorders and substance misuse. Early intervention is required to minimise the impact of mental illness on a young person s learning, growth and development, thus improving the health outcome of those affected by mental illness. (Orygen Youth Health, 2009). It was found that the duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) could be dramatically reduced by providing community education and mobile detection teams in an experimental study (McGorry, Killackey Yung, 2007; McGorry et al., 2007). On the other hand, delayed treatment and prolonged duration of untreated psychosis is correlated with poorer response to treatment and worse outcomes. Thus, first-episode psychosis should be viewed as a psychiatric emergency and immediate treatment sought as a matter of urgency (McGorry and Yung, 2003). The existing evidence also highlights the importance of prevention and early intervention programs on substance abuse. Such programs focus on delaying the age of onset of drug experimentation; reducing the number of young people who progress to regular or problem use; and encouraging current users to minimise or reduce risky patterns of use. Universal school-based drug education programs have been found to be effective in preventing and delaying the onset of drug use and reducing drug consumption (Lubmen et al., 2007). Early andeffective intervention, targeting young people aged 12 25 years, is a community priority. A robust focus on young people s mental health has the capacity to generate greater personal, social and economic benefits than similar intervention in other age groups, and is therefore one of the best buys for future reforms (McGorry et al., 2007). Importance of other players During the early phases of a mental disorder, members of a person s social network (including parents, peers and GPs) can play an important role in providing support and encouraging appropriate help-seeking. For mental-health problems, young people tend to seek help from friends and family rather than health services. In developing countries, young people are even less willing to seek professional help for more sensitive matters (Tylee et al., 2007). As friends and family are often consulted first by young people, they constitute and important part of the pathway to professional mental health services (Rickwood, Deane and Wilson, 2007). In a survey with young Australians and their parents, it was found that the most common response was to listen, talk or support the person, followed by listen, talk orsupport family and encourage professional help-seeking. Counsellor and GP/doctor/medical were the most frequently mentioned types of professional help that would be encouraged, but when young people were asked open ended questions about how they would help a peer, only a minority mentioned that they would encourage professional help. Among parents, encouraging professional help was a common response both in open-ended and direct questions (Jorm, Wright and Morgan, 2007). General practice is essential to young people s mental health and is often the point of initial contact with professional services. However, there is a need to improve the ability of GPs to recognise mental health problems in young people As well asensuring privacy and clearly explaining confidentiality. Finally, GPs can provide reassurance that it is common to feel distress at times, and that symptoms can be a normal response to stressful events (Rickwood et al., 2007). Schools For the small percentage of youth who do receive service, this typically occurs in a school setting. School-based mental health (SBMH) programs and services not only enhance access to services for youth, but also reduce stigma for help seeking, increase opportunities to promote generalization and enhance capacity for mental health promotion and problem prevention efforts (Paternite, 2005). There is compelling evidence of the effectiveness of a range of school-based interventions in primary and secondary schools for children and young people at risk of substance abuse (Vimpani, 2005). One study found that participation in a school-based intervention beginning in preschool was associated with a wide range of positive outcomes, including less depressive symptoms (Reynolds et al., 2009). Best elements for SBMH include: (a) school family community agency partnerships, (b) commitment to a full continuum of mental health education, mental health promotion, assessment, problem prevention, early intervention, and treatment, and (c) services for all youth, including those in general and special education. A strong connection between schools and other community agencies and programs also assists in moving a community toward a system of care, and promotes opportunities for developing more comprehensive and responsive programs and services (Paternite, 2005). Government policy There are a number of examples of governmental policy and program to enhance youth mental health. The new Medicare-based scheme now includes a suite of measures designed to increase access to appropriate and affordable forms of evidence-based psychological care. Unfortunately, it largely reverts to traditional individual fee-for-service structures. There are no requirements for geographical distribution of services, despite the evidence of gross mal-distribution of mental health specialist services in Australia and the proven contribution of lack of mental health services to increased suicide rates in rural and regional communities (Hickie and McGorry, 2007). Transformation is also occurring in primary care in Australia. GPs are increasing their skills, providing new evidence-based medication and psychological treatments, and beginning to emphasise long term functional outcomes rather than short-term relief of symptoms. Early-intervention paradigms depend on earlier presentation for treatment. Future progress now depends on development of an effective and accessible youth-health and related primary care network. (Hickie et al., 2005). As for substance abuse, The National Campaign Against Drug Abuse (now known as the National Drug Strategy) was established in 1985. It is an inter-governmental and strategic approach based on national and state government cooperation and planning. The campaign has been adopted to bring together research and practice relevant to the treatment and prevention to protect the healthy development of children and youth (Williams et al., 2005). Existing programs There are several existing programs which address youth mental health and substance abuse. Knowing which programs exist may help us in understanding existing resources and knowledge, learning best practices, and recognising what else needs to be done. Australian programs: * The National Youth Mental Health Foundation headspace: providing mental and health wellbeing support, information and services to young people aged 12 to 25 years and their families across Australia. www.headspace.org.au * MindMatters is a national mental health initiative funded by the Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. It is a professional development program supporting Australian secondary schools in promoting and protecting the mental health, social and emotional wellbeing of all the members of school communities. www.mindmatters.edu.au * Mindframe: a national Australian Governments program aimed at improving media reporting on mental health issues, providing access to accurate information about suicide and mental illness and portraying these issues in the news media and on stage and screen in Australia. www.mindframe-media.info * The Personal Assessment and Crises Evaluation (PACE) clinic provides treatment for young people who are identified as being at ultra high risk. It involves facilitated groups using adult learning principles based on a curriculum addressing adolescent communication, conflict resolution and adolescent development. http://cp.oyh.org.au/ClinicalPrograms/pace * The Gatehouse Project has been developed in Australia as an enhancement program for use in the secondary school environment. It incorporates professional training for teachers and an emotional competence curriculum for students and is designed to make changes in the social and learning environments of the school as well as promoting change at the individual level. www.rch.org.au/gatehouseproject * Pathways to Prevention: a universal, early intervention , developmental prevention project focused on the transition to school in one of the most disadvantaged urban areas in Queensland. * The Positive Parenting Program (Triple P), which has been implemented widely in Australia and elsewhere for parents of preschool children, has also been implemented for parents of primary school-aged children. http://www1.triplep.net * The Family Partnerships training program, now established in several Australian states and already incorporated into maternal and child health and home visitor training, is designed to improve the establishment of an effective respectful partnership between health workers and their clients. Other international programs: * ARC (Availability, Responsiveness and Continuity): an organizational and community intervention model that was designed to support the improvement of social and mental health services for children. The ARC model incorporates intervention components from organizational development, inter-organizational domain development, the diffusion of innovation, and technology transfer that target social, strategic, and technological factors in effective children s services. * Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY) is a universal prevention programme targeted at parents of pre-adolescents (aged 8 -14 years) that has been subjected to several large-scale dissemination and effectiveness studies across 30 states of the United States and Canada involving 120000 families. Future directions This paper suggests that despite a wealth of knowledge and information on appropriate interventional methods, services to address youth mental health in Australia are not consistently provided and are often under-funded. New evidence is continuously available for professionals; however this knowledge has often failed to filter through to the community and those in need. As Bertolote McGorry (2005) asserted, despite the availability of interventions that can reduce relapses by more than 50%, not all affected individuals have access to them, and when they do, it is not always in a timely and sustained way. The major health problems for young people are largely preventable. Access to primary-health services is seen as an important component of care, including preventive health for young people. Young people need services that are sensitive to their unique stage of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial transition into adulthood, and an impression of how health services can be made more youth-friendly has emerged (Tylee et al., 2007). Existing and new extended community networks, including business, schools, sporting bodies, government sectors, community agencies and the broader community are asked to play their part in mental health promotion and illness prevention. These networks will: * bring together all service sectors and the broader community in closer collaboration in the promotion of mental health; * exchange information about, and increase understanding of existing activities, and encourage new ones; * develop and strengthen the mental health promoting aspects of existing activities; develop greater mental health promotion skills right across the community; and * encourage an environment that fosters and welcomes new ideas, and supports adaptation and innovation to respond to a new environment (Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT, 2006). As for substance misuse, despite acknowledgement of the substantial costs associated with alcohol misuse within Australia, there have not been serious attempts to reduce alcohol harm using the major levers of mass-marketing campaigns, accompanied by significant changes to alcohol price and regulatory controls. Young people continue to be given conflicting messages regarding the social acceptability of consuming alcohol (Lubmen et al., 2007). According to the Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit (2006), ideas about the best strategies for supporting the mental health of the community are undergoing great change in Australia and internationally, with a growing focus on preventative approaches. Mental health promotion and prevention are roles for the whole community and all sectors of government. Although Australia has slipped behind in early intervention reform, it is now emerging that the situation can improve and that Australia can again be at the forefront of early intervention work. Here are some proposals as to how this can best be achieved: 1. Guaranteed access to specialist mental health services for a minimum period of 3 years post-diagnosis for all young people aged 15 25 with a first-episode of psychosis. New funding is clearly required to support this. 2. Such funding must be quarantined into new structures, programmes and teams. 3. The child versus adult psychiatry service model split is a serious flaw for early intervention and for modern and appropriate developmental psychiatry models. It needs to be transcended by proactive youth-orientated models. Early detection and engagement can be radically improved through such reforms and specialist mental health care can also be delivered in a less salient and stigmatized manner. McGorry et al. (2007) suggested four service levels that are required to fully manage mental illness among young people: 1. Improving community capacity to deal with mental health problems in young people through e-health, provision of information, first aid training and self-care initiatives; 2. Primary care services provided by general practitioners and other frontline service providers, such as school counsellors, community health workers, and non-government agency youth workers; 3. Enhanced primary care services provided by GPs (ideally working in collaboration with specialist mental health service providers in co-located multidisciplinary service centres) as well as team-based virtual networks; 4. Specialist youth-specific (12 25 years) mental health services providing comprehensive assessment, treatment and social and vocational recovery services (McGorry et al., 2007). Elements of successful programs (best practices) Revising the vast research on preventing mental disorders and promoting mental health among youth, particularly in Australia, as well as examining some of the successful and effective programs in the field, the following items summarise elements of current best practice: 1. Holistic approaches and community engagement: a. Adopt holistic approaches which integrate mental health promotion with other aspects of community and individual wellbeing b. Balance between universal and targeted programmes and their relative cost-effectiveness. c. Engage young people, the community and youth support services in working together to build the resilience of young people, and encourage early help and help seeking when problems occur d. Community engagement with the youth, and youth engagement with the community e. Outreach workers, selected community members and young people themselves are involved in reaching out with health services to young people in the community f. Promote community-based health facility: including stand-alone units (which are generally run by non-governmental organisations or by private individuals or institutions), and units that are an integral part of a district or municipal health system (that are run by the government). 2. Access to services and information: a. Make services more accessible to youth by collaborating with schools, GPs, parents etc. b. Social marketing to reduce stigma and make information more accessible c. Have more information online for young people with mental health issues, their families and peers. Promote understanding among community members of the benefits that young people will gain by obtaining health services a. Reduce costs b. Improve convenience of point of delivery working hours and locations 3. Assure youth-friendly primary-care services a. Have other players in the community involved in promotion of youth mental health, such as schools, GPs, and community centres b. Practitioners training c. Ensure confidentiality and privacy (including discreet entrance) d. Addressing inequities (including gender inequities) and easing the respect, protection, and fulfilment of human rights 4. Inter-sectoral and inter-organisational collaboration: a. Enable organisations to work in partnership towards shared goals b. Lead to multi agency, client centred service delivery and care 5. Research and support: a. Provide support such as information and training for the community and for mental health carers and consumers to plan and participate in mental health promotion activity b. Acknowledge formal and informal knowledge 6. Policy: a. Promoting a whole-of-government response to support optimal development health and well-being outcomes b. Policies and procedures are in place that ensure health services that are either free or affordable to all young people

Essay --

Walt Disney Every little girl and boy at some point in their life, wanted to be a Disney character of some sort whether it be Cinderella, Aladdin, Mushu, or even the famous Mickey Mouse. Walt Disney Company has been worldwide, and has had a moving impact on both children and adults since it first started in 1924. â€Å"All your dreams can come true – If we have the courage to pursue them† (Disney) Throughout Walt Disney’s life he has been an inspiration to all through his never-ending imagination, his magical theme parks, and his charming cartoons. Walt Disney was born in Chicago on 5 December 1901, the youngest of four sons, with a sister to follow. In 1906 his family moved to a forty acre farm in Marceline, Missouri. Walt’s father Elias, after four years of proving unsuccessful as a farmer and then being afflicted with typhoid, had to sale the farm and eventually move the family to Kansas City, Missouri. Walt would always speak of life in Marceline with a great sense of homesickness. To him the small town signified what was best about America. In Kansas City, Walt and his brother Roy helped their father deliver papers every morning and evening. A few years later they returned to Chicago, and while working several jobs, Walt took classes at the Chicago Academy of Fine Hope 2 Arts, the only art training that he would ever get. Even though as a child he was told he had no imagination he didn’t let that stop him from doing what he truly loved to do. One of the ways he is an inspiration to all is through his willpower to never give up. Disney's cartoons became widely popular in the Kansas City area, and through their success, he was able to purchase his own studio, Laugh-O-Gram, unfortunately, studio profits were unable to cover the... ...ted, warm loving woman who loved every child. Travers, who died in 1996, became a rich woman thanks to the film royalties but refused to work with Disney again. The new film is a Disney production. Her experience with Hollywood executives was so bruising that she agreed to a Mary Poppins stage musical by Sir Cameron Mackintosh on the proviso that "no Americans" be involved in its creation. But in Hope 5 the end Marry Poppins ended up winning five Academy Awards including best actress for Dame Julie Andrews. Throughout Walt Disney’s life its seen that his never-ending imagination, his magical theme parks, and his charming cartoons have encouraged and thaught people that no matter what your circumstances, or how many time you have fallen down, you need to get right back up and try again, and never give up. Because, â€Å"If you can dream it, you can do it† (Disney).

Outline two perspectives on learning Essay

Classical Conditioning is when behaviour is learned through a stimulus response bond (S_R) This is done by using unconditioned stimuli as well as conditioned stimuli. Simply put this method of behaviourist learning is able to create behaviour that doesn’t normally exist (e.g. salivating at the sound of a bell) this is done through association. For example if a person was to ring a bell right before they fed the dog, the dog would salivate due to the presence of the food. If done enough times, the dog would salivate at the sound of the bell alone, even if no food was present (Pavlov’s experiment) Operant Conditioning is used to shape behaviour that already exists in the learner. This is done through reinforcement whether it be positive (rewarding) negative (taking away a negative trait) or punishment Skinner found that people are more likely to learn a behaviour if they are rewarded after doing it (e.g. praise, gifts etc.)  SLT refers to Bandura’s research, as he believed that people can learn through vicarious learning watching other people doing or not doing as they do. This is done by Modelling, which can mean to make an example of a peer in school, thus showing others how to, or not to act. Humanistic Carl Rogers believed that people learn best when they are given/shown Unconditional positive regard, empathy and genuiness. This looks at learners as human beings with sensitivities and self esteem as opposed to machines which can be programmed (behaviourist) Maslow was another humanistic believers he created the hierarchy of needs, suggesting that the learners needed their basic needs to be satisfied (food safety belingingess) before they can learn and have the desire to explore the â€Å"meta needs† (learning etc.)    Due to the fact that the three perspectives are so different in design, it can be very difficult to say how one method is nomothetically better than another. Each perspective has its own strong and weak points.  The behaviourist perspective is a very affective method of learning as performance levels tend to be at the highest when the techniques of classical, Operant and SLT are applied. However this suggests that people learn only what they show, valuing nothing but the behaviour of the learner. For example the use of Classical Conditioning can create associations which can benefit the learner (e.g. standing up when a governor enters the room) as it can avoid embarrassment however, it can also be considered unethical to use such techniques as learners ten can become unable to control their own actions as the SR bond created put their behaviour in the control of the subconscious therefore using classical conditioning techniques would not be best when trying to teach something of a creative nature (e.g. art, music etc.) as personal control is very important in these subjects Another ethical issue with the use of behaviourist tactics in learning is that the reinforcement can hurt the learner’s self esteem. This can be seen in Operant Conditioning techniques like punishment in that although the behaviour may be shaped to an â€Å"acceptable standard†, the learners would become less motivated to produce work. This can also play a role in bad association between the student and the subject being taught in that they don’t like how the behaviourists teacher treats them, they would learn to dislike the subject as opposed to simply the teacher. The Humanistic view, due to the fact that they value the development of the person more than the acquisition of trivial knowledge, can often very poor exam results within schools. An example of this would be the Summerhill school (Neil) which applied a completely humanistic approach to the workings of the school (e.g. no reinforcement of class attendance, no rules etc.) the results of this experiment showed that with the humanistic perspective, exam results were poor, however follow up studies showed that psychological problems and better stability within alumni Another possible criticism of the humanistic views of Maslow is that there are people who can learn in school very well yet not have all of their basic needs satisfied (e.g. negligent parenting) however it can be said that the higher meta needs would be easier to pursue if the basic needs were provided for the learner. This goes against Maslow’s theory in that the hierarchy of needs can have exceptions based on individual differences (which can be analysed in the Myers Briggs Personality Indicator) Cognitive psychologists believe that all information can be presented in a way that’s best taken on by the learner. However this goes against the theories of Piaget and Ausubel who thought that information was exclusively better if present in certain ways, (bit by bit versus all encompassing respectively) The cognitive approach doesn’t consider the learners as anything but information processors, which can also hurt students self esteem as they are not necessarily regarded as human beings who are valued (Rogers) When it comes down to it each perspective is very helpful to the improvement of learning within children however if used exclusively can cause their own contrasting problems. The best way in my eyes is to create a hybrid of the systems, for example, in regards to dealing with disruptive behaviour a behaviourist system of punishment be most effective, but then followed up with a humanistic debrief, (explaining why being punished) this would allow the student to learn the behaviour as well as maintain or reinforce self esteem.